Normality Test

Posted on 2020-01-10 In Etc.

정규성 검정 function

shapiro.test(), qqnorm(), qqline()

> library(MASS)
> attach(Cars93)
> shapiro.test(Price)

	Shapiro-Wilk normality test

data:  Price
W = 0.88051, p-value = 4.235e-07

> str(Price)
 num [1:93] 15.9 33.9 29.1 37.7 30 15.7 20.8 23.7 26.3 34.7 ...
> qqnorm(Price)
> qqline(Price)
> qqnorm(log(Price))
> qqline(log(Price))
> shapiro.test(log(Price))

	Shapiro-Wilk normality test

data:  log(Price)
W = 0.9841, p-value = 0.32

정규분포를 따르지 않으면 sample 수가 적음
shaprio.test() - $H_0$ : 정규분포(정규성 분포)
shapiro.test(Price) : $p-value \leq 0.05$ 이므로 귀무가설 기각
shapiro.test(log(Price)) : $p-value \geq 0.05$ 이므로 귀무가설 채택

선에 맞춰서 몰려져있어야 정규분포

p-value $\leq$ 0.05 이므로 귀무가설 채택

xtabs(), table(), prop.table()

> str(Cars93)
'data.frame':	93 obs. of  27 variables:
 $ Manufacturer      : Factor w/ 32 levels "Acura","Audi",..: 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 4 4 5 ...
...
 $ Make              : Factor w/ 93 levels "Acura Integra",..: 1 2 4 3 5 6 7 9 8 10 ...
> t1=table(Origin);t1
Origin
    USA non-USA 
     48      45 
> xtabs(~Origin,Cars93)
Origin
    USA non-USA 
     48      45 
> prop.table(table(Origin))
Origin
     USA  non-USA 
0.516129 0.483871 
> prop.table(t1)
Origin
     USA  non-USA 
0.516129 0.483871 
> options('digits'=3)
> prop.table(table(Origin))
Origin
    USA non-USA 
  0.516   0.484 
> prop.table(t1)
Origin
    USA non-USA 
  0.516   0.484

~다음은 보통 범주형 자료
xtabs() - attach()없어도 가능
prop.table() - 비율 출력
options('digits'=n) - 소수 자릿수 수정

with() - 교차표(범주형 2개)

> t2=with(Cars93,table(Origin,Type));t2
         Type
Origin    Compact Large Midsize Small Sporty Van
  USA           7    11      10     7      8   5
  non-USA       9     0      12    14      6   4
> t3=xtabs(~Origin+Type,Cars93);t3
         Type
Origin    Compact Large Midsize Small Sporty Van
  USA           7    11      10     7      8   5
  non-USA       9     0      12    14      6   4
> prop.table(t2)
         Type
Origin    Compact  Large Midsize  Small Sporty    Van
  USA      0.0753 0.1183  0.1075 0.0753 0.0860 0.0538
  non-USA  0.0968 0.0000  0.1290 0.1505 0.0645 0.0430
> margin.table(t3,1) #행
Origin
    USA non-USA 
     48      45 
> margin.table(t3,2) #열
Type
Compact   Large Midsize   Small  Sporty     Van 
     16      11      22      21      14       9 
> prop.table(t3)
         Type
Origin    Compact  Large Midsize  Small Sporty    Van
  USA      0.0753 0.1183  0.1075 0.0753 0.0860 0.0538
  non-USA  0.0968 0.0000  0.1290 0.1505 0.0645 0.0430
> addmargins(t3)
         Type
Origin    Compact Large Midsize Small Sporty Van Sum
  USA           7    11      10     7      8   5  48
  non-USA       9     0      12    14      6   4  45
  Sum          16    11      22    21     14   9  93
> addmargins(prop.table(t3))
         Type
Origin    Compact  Large Midsize  Small Sporty    Van    Sum
  USA      0.0753 0.1183  0.1075 0.0753 0.0860 0.0538 0.5161
  non-USA  0.0968 0.0000  0.1290 0.1505 0.0645 0.0430 0.4839
  Sum      0.1720 0.1183  0.2366 0.2258 0.1505 0.0968 1.0000

with(), xtabs() - 교차표 생성
margin.table() - table의 행 or 열 출력
addmargins() - 합계 출력

교차분석(범주형 2개) - CrossTable()

검정통계량

$$\chi^2=\sum_{i}\sum_{j}\frac{(O_{ij}-E_{ij})^2}{E_{ij}} \sim \chi^2_{(a-1)(b-1)}$$

a, b - 범주수

가설

$$H_0 : 두\ 변수\ 독립\ O,\ H_1 : 두\ 변수\ 독립\ X$$

> library(gmodels)
> CrossTable(Origin,Type)

 
   Cell Contents
|-------------------------|
|                       N |
| Chi-square contribution |
|           N / Row Total |
|           N / Col Total |
| N / Table Total |
| --------------- |

 
Total Observations in Table:  93 

 
             | Type 
      | Origin        | Compact     | Large       | Midsize     | Small       | Sporty      | Van         | Row Total   |
      | ------------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- |
      | USA           | 7           | 11          | 10          | 7           | 8           | 5           | 48          |
      | 0.192         | 4.990       | 0.162       | 1.360       | 0.083       | 0.027       |             |
      | 0.146         | 0.229       | 0.208       | 0.146       | 0.167       | 0.104       | 0.516       |
      | 0.438         | 1.000       | 0.455       | 0.333       | 0.571       | 0.556       |             |
      | 0.075         | 0.118       | 0.108       | 0.075       | 0.086       | 0.054       |             |
      | ------------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- |
      | non-USA       | 9           | 0           | 12          | 14          | 6           | 4           | 45          |
      | 0.204         | 5.323       | 0.172       | 1.450       | 0.088       | 0.029       |             |
      | 0.200         | 0.000       | 0.267       | 0.311       | 0.133       | 0.089       | 0.484       |
      | 0.562         | 0.000       | 0.545       | 0.667       | 0.429       | 0.444       |             |
      | 0.097         | 0.000       | 0.129       | 0.151       | 0.065       | 0.043       |             |
      | ------------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- |
      | Column Total  | 16          | 11          | 22          | 21          | 14          | 9           | 93          |
      | 0.172         | 0.118       | 0.237       | 0.226       | 0.151       | 0.097       |             |
      | ------------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- |
> CrossTable(Origin,Type,expected=T,chisq=T)

 
   Cell Contents
|-------------------------|
|                       N |
|              Expected N |
| Chi-square contribution |
|           N / Row Total |
|           N / Col Total |
| N / Table Total |
| --------------- |

 
Total Observations in Table:  93 

 
             | Type 
      | Origin        | Compact     | Large       | Midsize     | Small       | Sporty      | Van         | Row Total   |
      | ------------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- |
      | USA           | 7           | 11          | 10          | 7           | 8           | 5           | 48          |
      | 8.258         | 5.677       | 11.355      | 10.839      | 7.226       | 4.645       |             |
      | 0.192         | 4.990       | 0.162       | 1.360       | 0.083       | 0.027       |             |
      | 0.146         | 0.229       | 0.208       | 0.146       | 0.167       | 0.104       | 0.516       |
      | 0.438         | 1.000       | 0.455       | 0.333       | 0.571       | 0.556       |             |
      | 0.075         | 0.118       | 0.108       | 0.075       | 0.086       | 0.054       |             |
      | ------------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- |
      | non-USA       | 9           | 0           | 12          | 14          | 6           | 4           | 45          |
      | 7.742         | 5.323       | 10.645      | 10.161      | 6.774       | 4.355       |             |
      | 0.204         | 5.323       | 0.172       | 1.450       | 0.088       | 0.029       |             |
      | 0.200         | 0.000       | 0.267       | 0.311       | 0.133       | 0.089       | 0.484       |
      | 0.562         | 0.000       | 0.545       | 0.667       | 0.429       | 0.444       |             |
      | 0.097         | 0.000       | 0.129       | 0.151       | 0.065       | 0.043       |             |
      | ------------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- |
      | Column Total  | 16          | 11          | 22          | 21          | 14          | 9           | 93          |
      | 0.172         | 0.118       | 0.237       | 0.226       | 0.151       | 0.097       |             |
      | ------------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- | ----------- |

 
Statistics for All Table Factors


Pearson's Chi-squared test 
------------------------------------------------------------
Chi^2 =  14.1     d.f. =  5     p =  0.0151 


 
Warning message:
In chisq.test(t, correct = FALSE, ...) :
  Chi-squared approximation may be incorrect

N, Expected N, 각 셀 chi-square, 행%, 열%, 전체%에서 몇 %를 차지하는지
expected=T - 기대빈도
chisq=T - 카이제곱분포(표준정규분포 제곱)
$16 \times 48 \over 93$
$(7-8.258)^2 \over 8.258$
유의수준 0.05 $\geq$ 유의확률 0.015 - 귀무가설 기각
Origin에 따라서 Type의 차이 O
행%를 보고 해석 - 핵심적이고 큰 차이가 나는 것을 기술(ex. Large)

ex) 두 변수 독립?

$H_0$ : 두 변수 독립(Origin에 따라서 Type 차이 X)
$H_1$ : 두 변수 독립 X

	O	X	sum
남	100	100	200
여	50	50	100
sum	150	150	300

두 사상이 독립(사건의 독립) $$p(O|남)=\frac{p(O \cap 남)}{p(남)}$$

기대빈도 : 독립이게끔 하는 빈도, 차이가 없게끔 하는 빈도 - $E_{ij}$
관측빈도 - $O_{ij}$

$$\chi^2=\sum_{i}\sum_{j}\frac{(O_{ij}-E_{ij})^2}{E_{ij}} \sim \chi^2_{(a-1)(b-1)}$$

a, b - 범주수

상관분석(수치형 2개)

검정통계량

$$T=r\sqrt{\frac{n-2}{1-r^2}}\sim t(n-2)$$

가설

$$H_0 : \rho_{xy}=0,\ H_1 : \rho_{xy}\neq0$$

1
2
3

> plot(Width,Length)
> r=cor(Width,Length);r
[1] 0.822

상관계수

두 수치변수의 직선적인 정도 - 공분산/분산(무차원수)
$$r_{xy}=\frac{\sum(x_i-\bar x)(y_i-\bar y)}{\sqrt{\sum(x_i-\bar x)^2\sum(y_i-\bar y)^2}}$$

공분산 $$\sum{(x_i-\bar{x})(y_i-\bar{y})}\over n-1$$

표본분산 $$s^2=\frac{\sum{(x_i-\bar{x})^2}}{n-1}$$

곡선형은 상관계수 무의미
산점도 그리고 상관계수
$r_{xy}$ - 표본상관계수
$\rho_{xy}$ - 모상관계수

t분포

$$T=r\sqrt{\frac{n-2}{1-r^2}}\sim t(n-2)$$

표준정규분포보다 꼬리가 두꺼움
$\sigma \over \sqrt{n}$대신 s를 사용하여 자유도 -1 : n-1
$Z_{0.025}=1.96 \leq t_{0.025}$

> qnorm(0.95)
[1] 1.64
> qnorm(0.975)
[1] 1.96
> qnorm(0.995)
[1] 2.58

df - degree of freedom

유의확률을 수식으로

> t=r*sqrt((length(Width)-2)/(1-r^2));t #검정통계량
[1] 13.8
> (1-pt(t,length(Width)-2))*2 #유의확률
[1] 0

일표본 T-검정 - t.test()

평균비교

검정통계량

$$T=\frac{\bar{X}-\mu_0}{s/\sqrt{n}}\sim t(n-1)$$

가설

$$H_0:\mu=\mu_0$$

Example

t.test(x,alternative=c('two.sided','less','greater'),mu=175,conf.level=0.95)
> t.test(OBP,mu=0.33,conf.level=0.95)

	One Sample t-test

data:  OBP
t = -0.168458, df = 437, p-value = 0.8663
alternative hypothesis: true mean is not equal to 0.33
95 percent confidence interval:
 0.32571002 0.33361264
sample estimates:
 mean of x 
0.32966133 

> t=(mean(OBP)-0.33)/(sd(OBP)/sqrt(length(OBP)));t
[1] -0.16845758
> pt(t,437)*2 #유의확률
[1] 0.86630125

alternative 안쳐도 됨, Default 양측
less는 좌단측 greater는 우단측
x는 변수명
config.level : 1-$\alpha$(유의수준)
위의 값 OBP는 귀무가설 채택

검정통계량 : 양수 - 1-pt() / 음수 - pt()

독립표본 T-검정

모수 $$\mu_1-\mu_2 \ -> \bar X_1 - \bar X_2 \sim N(\mu_1 - \mu_2, \sigma_1^2/n_1 + \sigma_2^2/n_2)$$

$$Z=\frac{(\bar X_1 - \bar X_2)-(\mu_1 - \mu_2)}{\sqrt{\sigma_1^2/n_1 + \sigma_2^2/n_2}} \sim N(0,1^2)$$

검정통계량

$$\sigma_1^2=\sigma_2^2\ -\ T=\frac{(\bar X_1 - \bar X_2)-(\mu_1 - \mu_2)}{\sqrt{S_p^2(1/n_1 + 1/n_2)}} \sim t(n_1+n_2-2)$$
$$\sigma_1^2\neq\sigma_2^2\ -\ T=\frac{(\bar X_1 - \bar X_2)-(\mu_1 - \mu_2)}{\sqrt{S_1^2/n_1 + S_2^2/n_2}} \sim t(u^*)$$

가중평균 : 집단의 개수가 다르면 가중치를 대입하여 평균 - $n_1 \bar x_1 + n_2 \bar x_2 \over n_1 + n_2$
합동분산 $S_p^2 = \frac{(n_1-1)S_1^2+(n_2-1)S_2^2}{(n_1-1)+(n_2-1)}$ - S는 자유도가 1
$u^*$는 실수

가설

$$H_0 : \mu_1-\mu_2=0$$

등분산 검정 - F분포(표본분산)

가설

$$H_0 : \frac{\sigma_1^2}{\sigma_2^2}=1,\ \sigma_1^2=\sigma_2^2$$

분산의 비는 F분포
우단측 검정만 실행
큰 $\sigma$를 위에

> 1-pt(1.96,100)
[1] 0.02638945
> 1-pnorm(1.96)
[1] 0.0249979

실제로는 보통 t분포를 사용함

Example

> summary(am)
   Min. 1st Qu.  Median    Mean 3rd Qu.    Max. 
 0.0000  0.0000  0.0000  0.4062  1.0000  1.0000 
> summary(mpg)
   Min. 1st Qu.  Median    Mean 3rd Qu.    Max. 
  10.40   15.43   19.20   20.09   22.80   33.90

귀무가설 : am에 따라서 mpg의 평균 차이가 없다

> var.test(mpg~am,mtcars)

	F test to compare two variances

data:  mpg by am
F = 0.38656, num df = 18, denom df = 12, p-value = 0.06691
alternative hypothesis: true ratio of variances is not equal to 1
95 percent confidence interval:
 0.1243721 1.0703429
sample estimates:
ratio of variances 
         0.3865615

var.test() : 등분산 검정 함수(수치~범주)
$p=0.06691>0.05$ : 채택 - 등분산

> t.test(mpg~am,mtcars,var.equal=T)

	Two Sample t-test

data:  mpg by am
t = -4.1061, df = 30, p-value = 0.000285
alternative hypothesis: true difference in means is not equal to 0
95 percent confidence interval:
 -10.84837  -3.64151
sample estimates:
mean in group 0 mean in group 1 
       17.14737        24.39231

등분산일 경우만 var.equal=T, 이분산은 default
$p=0.000285<0.05$ : 기각 - 차이가 있다
양측검정(0이 아니다) - 단측검정이면 유의확률/2
1번 집단의 mpg가 더 크다고 말할 수 있음

> t.test(mpg~am,mtcars) # 자유도 소수

	Welch Two Sample t-test

data:  mpg by am
t = -3.7671, df = 18.332, p-value = 0.001374
alternative hypothesis: true difference in means is not equal to 0
95 percent confidence interval:
 -11.280194  -3.209684
sample estimates:
mean in group 0 mean in group 1 
       17.14737        24.39231 

> var.test(mpg~vs) # 이것도 등분산

	F test to compare two variances

data:  mpg by vs
F = 0.51515, num df = 17, denom df = 13, p-value = 0.1997
alternative hypothesis: true ratio of variances is not equal to 1
95 percent confidence interval:
 0.1714935 1.4353527
sample estimates:
ratio of variances 
         0.5151485

성별에 따라 학점 차이? - 등분산 검정

대응표본 T-검정(전후 수치형 2개)

검정통계량

$$T=\frac{\bar D - \mu_D}{S_D/\sqrt{n}} \sim t(n-1)$$

가설

$$H_0 : \mu_{before}-\mu_{after}=\mu_D=0$$

Example

> shoes
$A
 [1] 13.2  8.2 10.9 14.3 10.7  6.6  9.5 10.8  8.8 13.3

$B
 [1] 14.0  8.8 11.2 14.2 11.8  6.4  9.8 11.3  9.3 13.6

> attach(shoes)
> t.test(A,B,paired=T) # paired=T - 대응표본

	Paired t-test

data:  A and B
t = -3.3489, df = 9, p-value = 0.008539
alternative hypothesis: true difference in means is not equal to 0
95 percent confidence interval:
 -0.6869539 -0.1330461
sample estimates:
mean of the differences 
                  -0.41 

> D=A-B;D
 [1] -0.8 -0.6 -0.3  0.1 -1.1  0.2 -0.3 -0.5 -0.5 -0.3
> t.test(D,mu=0) # 일표본 T-검정으로도 가능

	One Sample t-test

data:  D
t = -3.3489, df = 9, p-value = 0.008539
alternative hypothesis: true mean is not equal to 0
95 percent confidence interval:
 -0.6869539 -0.1330461
sample estimates:
mean of x 
    -0.41

$p=0.008539<0.05$ : 귀무가설 기각 - 차이가 있다 - B가 더 크다

일원배치 분산분석

세 집단 이상 평균비교(우단측 검정)

검정통계량

검정통계량 $$F=\frac{S_1^2}{S_2^2}=\frac{MSB}{MSW}$$

가설

$$H_0 : \mu_1 = \mu_2 = … = \mu_k$$
$$H_1 : \mu_j(적어도\ 하나)는\ 같지\ 않다$$

분산

$$S^2=\frac{1}{n-1}\sum(x_i-\bar x)^2$$

편차의 제곱합
자유도로 나눔
평균제곱합

$$Y_{ij}$$

i번째 집단 j번째 Data

$$Y_{ij}-\bar Y=(\bar Y_i-\bar Y)+(Y_{ij}-\bar Y_i)$$

$$(Y_{ij}-\bar Y)^2=(\bar Y_i-\bar Y)^2+(Y_{ij}-\bar Y_i)^2$$

$$\sum_i \sum_j (Y_{ij}-\bar Y)^2=\sum_i \sum_j (\bar Y_i-\bar Y)^2+\sum_i \sum_j (Y_{ij}-\bar Y_i)^2$$

$$
총제곱합(Sum\ of\ Square\ Total)
=집단간\ 제곱합(Sum\ of\ Square\ Between)
+집단내\ 제곱합(Sum\ of\ Square\ Within)
$$

$$df : n-1=(k-1)+(n-k)$$

k - 집단수

다중비교

귀무가설을 기각할때 차이가 있는지 여부만 알고 어떻게 차이가 있는지 알지 못함
따라서 다중비교, 하지만 분산분석과는 별개

Tukey - HSD(Honest Significant Difference) 방법

가장 보수적

Model(모형)

$$Y_{ij}=\mu_i+\epsilon_{ij}$$

모집단의 형태

Example

> attach(Cars93)
> a1=lm(Width~AirBags,Cars93);a1

Call:
lm(formula = Width ~ AirBags, data = Cars93)

Coefficients:
       (Intercept)  AirBagsDriver only         AirBagsNone  
            71.875              -2.015              -4.287

lm()은 Linear Model의 약자

> anova(a1)
Analysis of Variance Table

Response: Width
          Df  Sum Sq Mean Sq F value    Pr(>F)    
AirBags    2  218.68 109.340  8.9856 0.0002767 ***
Residuals 90 1095.15  12.168                      
---
Signif. codes:  0 ‘***’ 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ 0.05 ‘.’ 0.1 ‘ ’ 1

AirBags 집단간, Residuals 집단내
$p=0.0002767<0.05$ : 기각 - 차이가 있다
Pr(>F) - 우단측, $P1(F>F_0)$

> a2=aov(Width~AirBags,Cars93);a2
Call:
   aov(formula = Width ~ AirBags, data = Cars93)

Terms:
                  AirBags Residuals
Sum of Squares   218.6799 1095.1481
Deg. of Freedom         2        90

Residual standard error: 3.488311
Estimated effects may be unbalanced
> TukeyHSD(a2)
  Tukey multiple comparisons of means
    95% family-wise confidence level

Fit: aov(formula = Width ~ AirBags, data = Cars93)

$AirBags
                                    diff       lwr        upr     p adj
Driver only-Driver & Passenger -2.014535 -4.448921  0.4198512 0.1250460
None-Driver & Passenger        -4.286765 -6.807012 -1.7665170 0.0003127
None-Driver only               -2.272230 -4.180014 -0.3644452 0.0153291

다중비교(기각되면 필수)

> aggregate(Width,by=list(AirBags),mean)
             Group.1        x
1 Driver & Passenger 71.87500
2        Driver only 69.86047
3               None 67.58824

1번 그룹의 평균이 큼을 볼 수 있음
$D\And P=D>N$

> a3=lm(Price~AirBags,Cars93);a3

Call:
lm(formula = Price ~ AirBags, data = Cars93)

Coefficients:
       (Intercept)  AirBagsDriver only         AirBagsNone  
            28.369              -7.145             -15.195  

> anova(a3)
Analysis of Variance Table

Response: Price
          Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value    Pr(>F)    
AirBags    2   2747 1373.49  21.178 2.901e-08 ***
Residuals 90   5837   64.86                      
---
Signif. codes:  0 ‘***’ 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ 0.05 ‘.’ 0.1 ‘ ’ 1
> a4=aov(Price~AirBags,Cars93);a4
Call:
   aov(formula = Price ~ AirBags, data = Cars93)

Terms:
                 AirBags Residuals
Sum of Squares  2746.984  5837.037
Deg. of Freedom        2        90

Residual standard error: 8.05332
Estimated effects may be unbalanced

유의확률 Check
lm() - anova()

> TukeyHSD(a4)
  Tukey multiple comparisons of means
    95% family-wise confidence level

Fit: aov(formula = Price ~ AirBags, data = Cars93)

$AirBags
                                     diff       lwr       upr     p adj
Driver only-Driver & Passenger  -7.145494 -12.76566 -1.525327 0.0088790
None-Driver & Passenger        -15.195221 -21.01361 -9.376828 0.0000000
None-Driver only                -8.049726 -12.45415 -3.645302 0.0001033

diff가 음수이면 뒤가 더 큼

> aggregate(Price,by=list(AirBags),mean)
             Group.1        x
1 Driver & Passenger 28.36875
2        Driver only 21.22326
3               None 13.17353

$D\And P>D>N$

회귀분석

$$Y_i(종속)=\beta_0+\beta_1x_i(독립)+\epsilon_i$$
$$\epsilon_i(오차항) \sim N(0,\sigma^2) - 확률변수$$

오차항(회귀분석은 아래 가정을 따라야 함)
- 정규성
- 독립성
- 등분산성
독립변수 -> 종속변수 영향력? - $\beta_1$
$\beta_0, \beta_1$ - 모수(상수)
$E(Y_i)=\beta_0+\beta_1x_i$
$V(Y_i)=\sigma^2$

$$Y_i \sim N(\beta_0+\beta_1x_i,\sigma^2)$$

$$D=\sum_{i=1}^ne_i=\sum_{i=1}^n(Y_i-\hat{Y_i})^2=\sum_{i=1}^n(Y_i-y(x_i))^2$$

$e_i$ - Residual(잔차)
$\hat{Y_i}$ - 추정량(예측치)

검정통계량

F-검정

$$MSR=\frac{SSR}{k},\ MSE=\frac{SSE}{n-k-1}$$

$$F=\frac{MSR}{MSE}$$

T-검정

$$T=\frac{\hat{\beta_1}-\beta_1}{\sqrt{\frac{MSE}{\sum(x_i-\bar{x})^2}}} \sim t(n-2)$$

F는 모든 계수 검정, T는 $\beta_1$만 검정

가설

F-검정

$$H_0 : \beta_1 = 0(회귀모형\ 적합\ X)$$

T-검정

$$H_0 : \beta_0=0, T=\frac{\hat{\beta_0}-\beta_0}{\sqrt{MSE(\frac{1}{n}+\frac{\bar{x}^2}{\sum(x_i-\bar{x})^2})}}\sim t(n-2)$$
$$H_0 : \beta_1=0, T=\frac{\hat{\beta_1}-\beta_1}{\sqrt{\frac{MSE}{\sum(x_i-\bar{x})^2}}} \sim t(n-2)$$

Least squares regression

$$\frac{\partial D}{\partial \hat \beta_0}=0$$
$$\frac{\partial D}{\partial \hat \beta_1}=0$$

$\hat \beta_0,\ \hat \beta_1$의 분포

$$\hat{\beta_0}=\bar{Y}-\hat{\beta_1}\bar{x} \sim N(\beta_0,\sigma^2(\frac{1}{n}+\frac{\bar{x}^2}{\sum(x_i-\bar{x})^2})$$
$$\hat{\beta_1}=\frac{\sum(x_i-\bar{x})(Y_i-\bar{Y})}{\sum(x_i-\bar{x})^2} \sim N(\beta_1,\frac{\sigma^2}{\sum(x_i-\bar{x})^2})$$

분산분석

$$Y_{i}-\bar Y=(\hat Y_i-\bar Y)+(Y_{i}-\hat Y_i)$$

$$\sum (Y_{i}-\bar Y)^2=\sum (\hat Y_i-\bar Y)^2+\sum (Y_{i}-\hat Y_i)^2$$

$$총제곱합(SST)=회귀제곱합(SSR)+잔(오)차제곱합(SSE)$$

$$df : n-1=(k)+(n-k-1)$$

SSR은 크고 SSE는 작아야 유리
k - 독립변수 개수

$R^2$ - 결정계수

$$R^2=\frac{SSR}{SST}$$

설명력
높을수록 좋음

Example

> attach(Cars93)
> plot(Price,Length)
> a5=lm(Price~Length,Cars93);a5

Call:
lm(formula = Price ~ Length, data = Cars93)

Coefficients:
(Intercept)       Length  
   -41.5246       0.3331  

> anova(a5)
Analysis of Variance Table

Response: Price
          Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value    Pr(>F)    
Length     1 2177.3  2177.3  30.925 2.663e-07 ***
Residuals 91 6406.8    70.4                      
---
Signif. codes:  0 ‘***’ 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ 0.05 ‘.’ 0.1 ‘ ’ 1

plot

Length - SSR
Residual - SSE

기각 - 영향력 있다

> summary(a5)

Call:
lm(formula = Price ~ Length, data = Cars93)

Residuals:
    Min      1Q  Median      3Q     Max 
-10.969  -5.708  -2.674   2.790  41.126 

Coefficients:
             Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)    
(Intercept) -41.52458   11.00974  -3.772 0.000288 ***
Length        0.33315    0.05991   5.561 2.66e-07 ***
---
Signif. codes:  0 ‘***’ 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ 0.05 ‘.’ 0.1 ‘ ’ 1

Residual standard error: 8.391 on 91 degrees of freedom
Multiple R-squared:  0.2536,	Adjusted R-squared:  0.2454 
F-statistic: 30.93 on 1 and 91 DF,  p-value: 2.663e-07
> 2177/(6406+2177)
[1] 0.2536409

Coefficient : Esitimate - $\beta_0, \beta_1$
lm()
anova()
summary()